Chapter 1 Invitation to Biology

• Describe the successive levels of life’s organization.
• Explain the idea of emergent properties and give an example.
• Distinguish producers from consumers.
• Explain why homeostasis is important for sustaining life.
• Explain how DNA is the basis of similarities and differences among organisms.
• List two characteristics of prokaryotes.
• Name the four main groups of eukaryotes.
• Explain how organisms are named in the Linnaean system.
• Describe the way species are classified in taxa.
• List the taxa from species to domain.
• Describe the “biological species concept” and explain its limitations.
• Describe critical thinking and give some examples of how to do it.
• Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning.
• Use suitable examples to explain dependent and independent variables.
• Explain how a control group is used in an experiment.
• List the tasks that are part of the scientific method.
• Give an example, real or hypothetical, of an experiment in which a dependent variable is affected by an independent variable.
• Explain why it is risky to draw generalizations from a subset.
• Name some ways that researchers minimize sampling error and bias.
• Describe statistical significance.
• Discuss some areas of inquiry that science does not address.

Chapter 2 Life’s Chemical Basis

• Use an example to explain why we say that an atom is the smallest unit of a substance.
• Explain the difference between an atom and an element.
• Describe the properties of a radioisotope.
• Using an example, describe the shell model.
• Use the concept of vacancies to explain the chemical activity of atoms.
• Describe ions and give an example.
• Explain the property of free radicals that makes them dangerous.
• Describe a chemical bond.
• Distinguish between ionic and covalent bonds.
• Use ionic bonds to explain polarity.
• Write the structural formula for a molecule of water.
• Use appropriate examples to distinguish between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds.
• Draw a hydrogen bond between two water molecules.
• Describe the way an ionic solid dissolves in water.
• Distinguish between hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances.
• Using appropriate examples, explain how hydrogen bonding gives rise to three properties
• Define pH and give some examples.
• Differentiate between acids and bases.
• Explain how buffers maintain the pH of solutions.
• Use an example to explain why pH stability is important in biological systems.

Chapter 3 Molecules of Life

• Use appropriate examples to describe functional groups.
• Explain why biological molecules are modeled in different ways.
• Explain how the molecules of life are polymers.
• Give an example of a metabolic reaction.
• Describe the structure of carbohydrates and explain their roles in cells.
• Using an example, explain how the structure of a polysaccharide gives rise to its function.
• Name the function that glycogen serves in the human body.
• Describe a fat, and identify the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats.
• Explain why a phospholipid is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic.
• Describe the lipid bilayer.
• Give one example of a molecule that is made from cholesterol.
• Draw the generalized structure of an amino acid, and a peptide bond that connects them in proteins.
• List a few functions of proteins.
• Using examples, describe the four levels of protein structure.
• Describe protein denaturation and its effects.
• Using an appropriate example, explain why changes in protein structure can be dangerous.
• Describe the structure of a nucleotide and the general structure of a nucleic acid.

Chapter 4 Cell Structure

• List the four generalizations that constitute cell theory.
• Describe the three components that all cells have.
• Explain how the surface-to-volume ratio limits cell size.
• Explain how a light microscope works.
• Describe the use of fluorescent dyes in microscopy.
• Explain the difference between a transmission electron micrograph (TEM) and a scanning electron micrograph (SEM).
• Describe some of the structures shared by bacteria and archaea.
• Explain the difference between bacterial and archaeal cell walls.
• Distinguish between a prokaryotic flagellum and a pilus.
• Describe a biofilm and explain how it benefits its inhabitants.
• Identify some cellular components unique to eukaryotes.
• Explain the function of membranes that enclose organelles.
• List the functions of the cell nucleus and explain how these functions arise from its structure.
• List the main components of the endomembrane system.
• Name some different types of vesicles and describe their functions.
• Explain the differences between rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
• Describe the function of Golgi bodies.
• Explain the function of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells.
• Describe the structure of a mitochondrion.
• Describe the structure of chloroplasts.
• Explain the function of chloroplasts and amyloplasts.
• Using appropriate examples, name three types of cytoskeletal elements and explain their function.
• With examples, describe how motor proteins move cell parts.
• Describe the movement of eukaryotic cilia and flagella and how this movement arises.
• Describe an extracellular matrix of plants.
• Explain the function of basement membrane.
• Explain the functions of the three major types of cell junctions in animals.
• Describe a plasmodesma.
• Explain why it is difficult to define “life.”
• List some of the properties that are associated with living systems.

Chapter 5 Ground Rules of Metabolism

• Describe entropy in terms of chemical bonding.
• Compare kinetic energy with potential energy.
• Use the first and second laws of thermodynamics to explain why the total amount of energy available for doing work in the universe always decreases.
• Explain chemical bond energy.
• Distinguish between endergonic and exergonic reactions.
• Describe activation energy.
• Explain how cells store and harvest energy using chemical reactions.
• Explain enzyme specificity.
• Describe four ways that enzymes speed reactions.
• Using appropriate examples, explain how environmental factors affect enzyme activity.
• Describe metabolic pathways.
• Use an example to explain how cells can control enzyme activity.
• Describe how feedback inhibition affects a metabolic pathway.
• Explain the role of redox reactions in electron transfer chain

• Explain the difference between cofactors and coenzymes.
• Give some examples of cofactors, and also of mechanisms by which cofactors affect enzyme function.
• Describe phosphorylation and give an example.
• Explain why we say ATP is an important currency in a cell’s energy economy.
• Describe the structure of a lipid bilayer.
• Explain the fluid mosaic model of cell membranes.
• Identify a unique property of archaeal cell membranes.
• List the functions of four common types of membrane proteins.
• Name five factors that influence the rate and direction of diffusion.
• Describe tonicity and how it determines the direction of osmosis.
• Explain the relationship between turgor and osmotic pressure.
• Explain why a cell requires transport proteins in its plasma membrane.
• Describe the way transport proteins selectively move molecules across membranes, and give an example.
• Using appropriate examples, distinguish between passive transport and facilitated diffusion.
• Explain why active transport requires an energy input and passive transport does not.
• Identify and explain the process by which cells expel materials in bulk.
• Explain how a vesicle forms at the plasma membrane.
• Explain the mechanism by which cells sample extracellular fluid.
• Describe the way cells take in and digest large particles.

Chapter 6 Where It Starts—Photosynthesis

• Explain why we say that photosynthesis feeds most life on Earth.
• Describe the structure of the thylakoid membrane.
• Write an equation that summarizes the overall pathway of photosynthesis.
• Summarize Theodor Engelmann’s photosynthesis experiment.
• Describe the relationship between a photon’s wavelength and its energy.
• Explain how a pigment absorbs light.
• Name the main photosynthetic pigment in plants.
• Describe what happens when a pigment that is part of a light-harvesting complex absorbs light.
• Explain the process of electron transfer phosphorylation.
• Compare the cyclic and noncyclic light-dependent reactions.
• Describe energy flow in the noncyclic light-dependent reactions.
• Explain the evolutionary advantages of the noncyclic pathway.
• State the role of carbon fixation in photosynthesis.
• Explain how coenzymes connect the light-dependent reactions with the Calvin–Benson cycle.
• Describe stomata and their function.
• Explain why photorespiration makes sugar production inefficient.
• Explain how C4 and CAM plants minimize photorespiration.

Chapter 7 Releasing Chemical Energy

• Compare the processes of cellular respiration and fermentation.
• Write an equation that summarizes glycolysis.
• Explain the difference between substrate-level phosphorylation and electron transfer phosphorylation.
• Describe the transfer of energy in glycolysis.
• Summarize the breakdown of pyruvate in acetyl–CoA formation and the citric acid cycle.
• Explain why aerobic respiration releases CO₂.
• Describe the movement of energy during acetyl–CoA formation and the citric acid cycle.
• Describe ATP formation in the last stage of aerobic respiration.
• Explain why aerobic respiration requires O₂.
• Describe ATP formation in fermentation pathways.
• List some commercial uses of alcoholic and lactate fermentation.
• Explain why fermentation, unlike aerobic respiration, requires no oxygen.
• Explain how cells convert energy in an organic compound to energy in ATP.
• Describe how different kinds of organic molecules are broken down in aerobic respiration.

Chapter 8 DNA Structure and Function

• Describe the four properties required of any genetic material.
• Summarize the classic experiments of Griffith, Avery, and Hershey and Chase that demonstrated DNA is genetic material.
• Summarize the events that led to the discovery of DNA’s structure.
• Identify the subunits of DNA and how they differ from one another.
• Describe the structure of a DNA molecule.
• Describe base pairing.
• Explain how DNA holds information.
• Describe the way DNA is organized in a chromosome.
• Explain how a eukaryotic cell’s chromosomes carry its genetic information.
• Explain the meaning of diploid.
• Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes.
• State the purpose of DNA replication and describe the process.
• Explain the role of primers in DNA replication.
• Describe nucleic acid hybridization.
• Explain semiconservative replication.
• Explain why DNA replication proceeds only in the 5’ to 3’ direction.
• Using examples, explain how mutations can arise.

• Describe two cellular mechanisms that can prevent mutations from occurring.
• Discuss the role of DNA in the continuity of life.
• Explain how and why clones are produced from a single body cell.
• Describe differentiation.

Chapter 9 From DNA to Protein

• Compare the components and structure of DNA and RNA molecules.
• Explain how the function of RNA differs from the function of DNA.
• Describe the basic structure of a gene.
• Explain the flow of information during gene expression.
• Describe the process of transcription.
• Compare DNA replication with transcription.
• Explain three types of post-transcriptional modifications to RNA.
• Describe codons and their function.
• Explain the signals that start and stop translation.
• Explain how an mRNA specifies the order of amino acids in a polypeptide.
• Summarize the role of rRNA and tRNA in translation.
• Explain the roles of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in translation.
• Describe the way a polypeptide is synthesized during translation.
• Describe three types of mutations.
• Explain how mutations can affect protein structure.
• Using an example, explain why some mutations are not harmful.

Chapter 10 Control OF Gene Expression

• Explain gene expression control and why it is necessary.
• Use examples to describe transcription factors.
• List the points of control over expression of a gene that has a protein product.
• Describe the role of master regulators in embryonic development.
• Give an example of a homeotic gene and explain its function.
• Using an appropriate example, explain why homeotic genes offer evidence of shared ancestry.
• Explain how adjustments to gene expression affect the form and function of male and female mammals.
• Explain circadian rhythms in terms of gene expression.
• Use the lac operon as an example to describe one way that bacteria regulate gene expression.
• Explain why most human adults are lactose intolerant.
• Explain why a DNA methylation is passed to all of a cell’s descendants.
• List some environmental factors that can affect an individual’s DNA methylation patterns.

Chapter 11 How Cells Reproduce

• Describe the main events in the eukaryotic cell cycle.
• Explain why we say mitosis maintains the chromosome number.
• Distinguish sister chromatids from homologous chromosomes.
• Identify two body processes that occur by mitosis.
• Describe the purpose of cell cycle checkpoints.
• List the main events that occur during each stage of mitosis.
• Describe the role of microtubules in nuclear division.
• Explain how mitosis packages two complete sets of chromosomes into two new nuclei.
• Explain why cytokinesis is a necessary part of the cell cycle.
• Describe and compare cytokinesis in animal and plant cells.
• Describe the relationship between telomeres and senescence.
• Explain why normal body cells are not immortal.
• Describe the fail-safe function of a cell division limit.
• Explain why mutations can give rise to neoplasms.
• Use an example to describe tumor suppressors.
• Describe some hallmarks of malignant cells.

Chapter 12 Meiosis and Sexual rRproduction

• Describe alleles and why they occur on homologous chromosomes of sexual reproducers.
• Explain why sexual reproduction requires meiosis.
• Explain the steps of meiosis in a diploid (2n) cell.
• Describe the major differences between meiosis I and meiosis II.
• Describe crossing over and how it introduces variation in traits among the offspring of sexual reproducers.
• Explain the random nature of chromosome segregation in gamete formation, and its significance in terms of variation in traits.
• Describe the similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis II.
• Offer evidence in support of the hypothesis that meiosis evolved from mutations in the process of mitosis.

Chapter 13 Observing Patterns in Inherited Traits

• Explain Gregor Mendel’s contribution to the study of inheritance.
• Describe the difference between a homozygous and heterozygous genotype, and represent each symbolically with an example.
• Use an example to describe dominant and recessive alleles.
• Describe the way a Punnett square is used.
• Explain how a testcross can reveal the genotype of an individual with a dominant trait.
• State the law of segregation in modern terms.
• With a suitable example, explain how to make a dihybrid cross.
• State the law of independent assortment in modern terms.
• Explain why the relative location of two genes on a chromosome can affect the way their alleles are distributed into gametes.
• Using the human blood groups as an example, explain codominance and multiple allele systems.
• Use an example to describe incomplete dominance.
• Explain the difference between epistasis and pleiotropy.
• Describe some environmental effects that affect an individual’s phenotype by altering gene expression.
• Discuss the influence of an individual’s environment on expression of genes associated with behavior.
• Using appropriate examples, explain continuous variation and its causes.

Chapter 14 Chromosomes and Human Inheritance

• Explain why pedigrees are used to study human inheritance patterns.
• Differentiate between a genetic disorder and a genetic abnormality.
• Using appropriate examples, explain and diagram the autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive inheritance patterns.
• Diagram the X-linked recessive inheritance pattern.
• Explain why X-linked recessive disorders are more common in males than in females.
• Describe the main types of large-scale structural changes in chromosomes, and explain their potential consequences.
• List some causes of structural changes in chromosomes.
• Give an example of structural change that has occurred in chromosomes during evolution.
• Distinguish between polyploidy and aneuploidy.
• Explain nondisjunction.
• Using appropriate examples, describe some health effects of changes in chromosome number in humans.
• Explain how early genetic screening can help a baby.

Chapter 15 Studying and Manipulating Genomes

• Describe restriction enzymes and explain why their discovery was important for DNA research.
• List the steps involved in making recombinant DNA.
• Explain the process of DNA cloning, and why researchers clone cDNA.
• Describe two ways of mass-producing a targeted section of DNA.
• Differentiate between a genomic library and a cDNA library.
• Explain the use of a probe in screening a DNA library.
• Describe how the sequence of DNA is determined.
• Explain the concept of electrophoresis.
• Describe the Human Genome Project.
• Describe some applications of genomics.
• Using appropriate examples, explain how individuals can be identified by their DNA.
• Differentiate between a GMO and a transgenic organism.
• Using appropriate examples, describe some of the ways that genetically engineered microorganisms are used.
• Describe safety measures put in place for genetic modification.
• Describe a method of making transgenic plants.
• Describe some of the ways that genetically engineered plants are used.
• Describe some transgenic animals and their uses.
• Explain some ethical concerns regarding engineered animals.
• Explain gene therapy and some of its benefits and risks.
• Give an example of a gene drive, and describe how it works.

Chapter 16 Evidence of Evolution

• Using appropriate examples, explain how three types of observations of the natural world challenged traditional belief systems in the 1800s.
• Explain evolution by natural selection and the ideas that led Darwin to propose this hypothesis.
• Describe the relationship between an evolutionary adaptation and fitness.
• Give examples of information that fossils provide about past life.
• Explain fossilization and why fossils are relatively rare.
• Describe the kinds of evidence about the history of life that can be found in sedimentary rock formations.
• Describe some geologic features that form as a result of plate tectonics, and explain how these features arise.
• Explain how researchers determine the age of ancient materials.

Chapter 17 Processes of Evolution

• Using appropriate examples, explain variation in shared traits among individuals of a species.
• Differentiate between a lethal mutation and a neutral mutation.
• Explain allele frequency.
• Describe microevolution.
• Explain genetic equilibrium, and list the conditions necessary for it to occur.
• Use an example to describe how genetic equilibrium can be used as a benchmark.
• Describe three patterns of natural selection.
• Use examples to explain how natural selection drives microevolution.
• Explain how a change in the environment can favor a mutation that had previously been neutral or even somewhat harmful.
• Use examples to explain sexual selection and its outcomes.
• Describe two ways that a balanced polymorphism can be maintained.
• Explain why a harmful allele can persist at high frequency in a population.
• With suitable examples, explain how mechanisms that do not involve adaptive traits can change allele frequency.
• Explain why smaller populations are more vulnerable to the loss of genetic diversity.
• Describe the way gene flow stabilizes allele frequency.
• Describe speciation in terms of reproductive isolation.
• Using suitable examples, explain reproductive isolation.
• Describe some models of speciation and give examples of each.
• Distinguish between microevolution and macroevolution.
• Use examples to describe some patterns of macroevolution.

Chapter 18 Organizing Information about Species

• Distinguish between a character and a derived character.
• Describe cladistics and compare it to Linnaean taxonomy.
• Describe how body form and function can offer clues about evolutionary history.
• Distinguish between divergent and convergent evolution.
• Use examples to explain the difference between analogous structures and homologous structures.
• Explain why similarities between protein sequences (or between DNA sequences) can be used as a measure of relative relatedness.
• Explain why similarities in patterns of embryonic development can be used as a measure of relative relatedness.
• 6.1 – Use examples to describe some applications of phylogeny.

Chapter 19 Life’s Origin and Early Evolution

• Explain what study of ancient rocks has revealed about conditions on the early Earth.
• Describe how scientists have tested the hypothesis that simple organic molecules could have formed on the early Earth.
• List three locations where the building blocks of Earth’s first life may have formed.
• List the proposed steps that led to the first cellular life.
• Explain the RNA world hypothesis.
• Describe the properties of laboratory-produced protocells.
• List the probable traits of LUCA, the last common ancestor of all life.
• Describe the oldest fossils of early life and the environments in which these fossil cells lived.
• Explain what caused the increase in oxygen in Earth’s air and waters.
• Describe how the increase in oxygen affected the existing organisms and how it set the stage for the later movement of life onto land.
• Describe the likely origins of the eukaryotic nucleus, endomembrane system, mitochondria, and chloroplasts.

Chapter 20 Viruses, Bacteria, and Archaea

• List the components shared by all free viral particles (virions).
• Explain the difference between enveloped viruses and non-enveloped (naked) viruses.
• Describe the structure of a bacteriophage.
• List the step common to all viral replication pathways.
• Explain the difference between the two bacteriophage replication pathways.
• Describe how HIV replicates.
• List some common diseases caused by viruses.
• Describe the ways that viruses can spread between hosts.
• Explain what an emerging disease is and give an example.
• Explain how new strains of flu arise.
• Describe some of the structural traits shared by bacteria and archaea.
• Explain how prokaryotic cells reproduce.
• Describe the three processes of horizontal gene transfer.
• List the four modes of nutrition used by bacteria.
• Explain the function of endospores.
• Describe the process of nitrogen fixation and explain its ecologic importance.

Chapter 21 Protists—the Simplest Eukaryotes 

• Explain why protists are not considered a clade.
• Compare primary endosymbiosis and secondary endosymbiosis.
• Describe the two modes of nutrition in protists.
• Explain the metabolic trait that differentiates diplomonads and parabasalids from other excavate protists.
• Give three examples of medically important excavate protists.
• Compare the structure of a trypanosome and a euglenid.
• Compare the structure of diatoms and kelps.
• List some commercial products derived from stramenopiles.
• Explain how water molds differ from true fungal molds.
• Describe the importance of water molds as pathogens.
• Compare the structure and means of locomotion of ciliates and dinoflagellates.
• Describe the life cycle of the apicomplexan that causes malaria.
• Compare the structure of foraminifera and radiolarians.
• Explain how rhizarians feed.
• List the types of rocks that form from rhizarian remains.
• Explain the relationship between red algae, green algae, and land plants.
• Describe the life cycle of the red alga Porphyra.
• List some human uses of archaeplastids.

Chapter 22 The Land Plants

• Explain when land plants evolved and the earliest evidence for these plants.
• List the traits that land plants share with green algae in general and with charophyte algae in particular.
• Explain the trait that defines land plants as a distinct lineage.
• Describe the alternation of generations in land plants.
• Explain the challenges plants faced as they moved from water onto land and evolutionary changes that occurred as a result of those challenges.
• List the three lineages of bryophytes and the traits that they share.
• Explain why there are no tree-sized bryophytes.
• Describe the life cycle of a moss.
• List and describe the major groups of seedless vascular plants.
• Describe the fern life cycle.
• Describe the types of plants that lived in a Carboniferous coal forest, and explain how coal forms.
• Explain how the reproductive traits of seed plants give them an advantage over seedless plants in dry habitats.
• Compare the function of megaspores and microspores in the seed plant life cycle, and explain where each type of spore forms.
• Discuss how the evolution of wood provided an advantage to seed plants.   
• Explain the origin of the name “gymnosperm.”
• Using appropriate examples, discuss the diversity of forms among gymnosperm lineages.
• List distinguishing traits of conifers and describe their life cycle.
• Describe the components of a flower and their functions.
• Explain how endosperm forms and its function.
• Discuss how components of a flower give rise to fruits and seeds.
• List the factors that contributed to the success of angiosperms.
• Compare the traits of monocots and eudicots.
• Describe the ways in which humans benefit from angiosperms.

Chapter 23 Fungi

• Explain how fungi are similar to and different from plants and animals.
• Describe the structure of multi-celled fungi.
• Explain how fungi meet their nutritional needs.
• Explain why chytrids are considered an ancient fungal group.
• Describe the trait that distinguishes chytrids.
• Describe the growth and reproduction of a zygote fungus.
• Explain how a microsporidian infects a host cell.
• Describe the structure of a glomeromycete fungus.
• Describe the variety of growth forms in sac fungi.
• Explain the function of a sac fungus ascocarp and how this structure forms.
• Describe the club fungus life cycle.
• Compare the length of the dikaryotic phase in club fungi, sac fungi, and zygote fungi.
• Using appropriate examples, describe the ways that fungi can benefit and harm plants and animals.
• Describe the effects of two types of fungal infections common in humans.
• List some of the ways that humans use fungi.

Chapter 24 Animal Evolution— the Invertebrates

• List the features common to all animals.
• Describe some of the ways in which animal body plans can vary.
• Explain the colonial theory of animal origins.
• Discuss what the fossil record reveals about early animal evolution.
• List environmental and biological factors that may have encouraged an adaptive radiation during the Cambrian period.
• Describe the types of cells in a sponge body, and explain how they work together to keep the animal alive.
• Explain how sponges reproduce sexually.
• Describe how sponges can reproduce asexually and their capacity to regenerate.
• Compare and contrast the medusa and polyp body plans.
• Discuss how cnidarians capture, ingest, and digest their food.
• Describe two colonial cnidarians.
• Compare the structural organization and symmetry of a flatworm with that of a cnidarian.
• Explain how nutrients and gases are distributed through a flatworm’s body.
• Describe the life cycle of a tapeworm.
• Describe the annelid circulatory system.
• Describe the features of the three subgroups of annelids.
• List the structures you would see in a cross section through an earthworm, and explain their functions.
• Describe the developmental trait that unites annelids and mollusks.
• Explain the structure and functions of the mollusk mantle.
• Using appropriate examples, name the four mollusk groups and discuss the traits that define them.
• Compare an open circulatory system with a closed circulatory system, and note which groups of mollusks have each.
• Describe the roundworm body plan.
• Explain why roundworms are used as models in scientific studies.
• Describe the ecological roles played by roundworms.
• Describe the features that have contributed to the success of the arthropods.
• List the living arthropod subgroups and the features of each group.
• Using appropriate examples, discuss the ecological roles of arthropods and their economic and health effects on humans.

Chapter 25 Animal Evolution—the Vertebrates

• List the four traits that define chordates.
• Describe the two groups of invertebrate chordates, and draw a tree showing how they relate to one another and to vertebrates.
• Explain how an endoskeleton differs from an exoskeleton.
• Describe the traits common to all fishes.
• Compare the body plan of a lamprey and a shark.
• Using appropriate examples, describe the two lineages of bony fishes and the anatomical traits that distinguish them.
• Describe the anatomical and physiological adaptations that arose during the transition to life on land.
• Explain how the body form and development of salamanders differ from those of frogs and toads.
• List some causes of the ongoing decline in amphibian diversity.
• Describe amniote adaptations to life on land.
• List the two amniote lineages and the modern groups in each.
• Compare the physiology of endotherms and ectotherms, and provide examples of each.
• Explain how snakes are related to lizards.
• Describe how turtle anatomy has changed over time.
• Describe some ways that crocodilians are similar to birds.
• Give examples of structural and physiological traits that are adaptations to flight.
• List some functions of bird feathers.
• Describe some ways in which bird body form varies.
• Describe the traits unique to mammals.
• Explain the differences among the three mammalian subgroups and provide examples of each.

Chapter 26 Human Evolution

• Describe the traits that characterize primates.
• Compare the bodies of an Old World monkey, a New World monkey, and an ape, giving examples of each.
• List the types of modern nonhuman apes, and explain which of them are our closest relatives.
• Describe some of the anatomical differences between modern humans and apes.
• Describe the physical characteristics of early hominins and how they differ from modern humans.
• Describe the anatomy of Homo erectus and Homo habilis.
• Give examples of cultural traits exhibited by early humans.
• Describe what is known about Neanderthals and about the other recently discovered members of our genus.
• Explain the evidence that our species originated in Africa.

Chapter 27 Plant Tissues

• Describe the two organ systems of a flowering plant.
• Explain the functions of the three types of plant tissues.
• List some differences between eudicots and monocots.
• Distinguish between simple and complex plant tissues.
• Describe the three types of simple tissues in plants.
• Explain the function of epidermal tissue.
• Describe plant vascular tissues and some of their functions.
• Describe vascular bundles and their arrangement in the stems of monocots and eudicots.
• Using appropriate examples, list some types of modified stems and explain their defining features.
• Draw the general arrangement of tissues in a typical eudicot leaf.
• List some of the variations in eudicot leaf structure.
• Describe the main structural differences between the leaves of typical monocots and eudicots.
• Compare plant primary and secondary growth.
• Explain how roots and shoots lengthen.
• Describe the origin of secondary growth.
• Explain the formation of tree rings.

Chapter 28 Plant Nutrition and Transport

• Give some examples of plant macronutrients and their sources.
• State the difference between plant macronutrients and micronutrients.
• Describe the components of soil and their importance for plant growth.
• Explain two ways that soil can lose nutrients.
• Trace the paths that water and mineral ions travel as they move from soil into a root’s vascular cylinder.
• Explain how endodermis helps control the amounts and types of substances that enter xylem.
• Describe the formation of mycorrhizae and root nodules, and how they benefit the organisms involved.
• Describe the way xylem’s function arises from its structure.
• Explain how water can move from the roots of a vascular plant to leaves that may be hundreds of feet above them.
• Describe some plant adaptations that reduce water loss.
• Describe the function and operation of stomata.
• Describe the function of phloem.
• Describe the structure of sieve tubes and the role of companion cells in their functioning.
• Explain the steps involved in translocation of sucrose.

Chapter 29 Life Cycles of Flowering Plants

• List the components of a complete flower and their function.
• Describe some structural variations in flower form.
• Using suitable examples, explain the relationship between floral traits and coevolved pollination vectors.
• Draw the life cycle of a typical flowering plant.
• Explain the roles of meiosis and mitosis in the life cycle of a flowering plant.
• Explain the role of cell signaling in angiosperm sexual reproduction.
• Compare the development of typical eudicot and monocot embryos.
• Explain the function of seeds and how they form.
• Explain the origin and function of fruits.
• Using appropriate examples, list some fruit categories.
• Explain why some seeds undergo dormancy, and give some examples of triggers for germination.
• Describe the process of germination of a seed.
• Compare the pattern of early growth that occurs in eudicots and monocots after germination.
• Describe vegetative reproduction and give some examples.
• List some of the ways that humans make use of vegetative reproduction.
• Explain why some fruits are seedless.

Chapter 30 Communication Strategies in Plants

• Describe the role of hormones in plants.
• Explain why the same hormone can elicit different responses in different cells.
• Explain auxin’s effect on growth and how it causes plant cells to enlarge.
• Describe the unique way that auxin can move through a plant.
• Summarize the interaction of auxin and cytokinin in apical dominance.
• Describe the way gibberellin causes plant growth.
• Explain gibberellin’s role in seed germination.
• Describe in general terms the mechanism by which abscisic acid helps minimize water loss.
• Explain feedback loops involved in ethylene synthesis.
• Describe the role of ethylene in fruit ripening.
• List some stimuli that cause plant parts to move.
• Describe how plants detect and respond to gravity.
• Give an example of a circadian rhythm in plants.
• Explain how plants sense seasonal change, and give some examples of their responses.
• Explain what happens when a pathogen enters a plant’s tissues.
• Distinguish between a hypersensitive response and systemic acquired resistance in plants.
• Describe one way that plants defend themselves from herbivory.

Chapter 31 Animal Tissues and Organ Systems

• List the four types of tissue in vertebrate bodies.
• Describe the types and locations of human body fluids.
• Give an example of a factor that constrains the evolution of animal body plans.
• Describe the structure and function of epithelial tissues.
• Compare endocrine and exocrine glands.
• Explain why epithelial tissues are especially prone to cancer.
• Describe the structure and function of connective tissues.
• Explain the role of collagen in connective tissue.
• Explain the trait that defines muscle tissues.
• List the three types of muscle tissues and their functions.
• Explain what is meant by voluntary muscle.
• Explain the role of nervous tissue.
• Compare the functions of neurons and neuroglia.
• List the organ systems in a human body, and provide a brief description of the components and function of each.
• List the functions of human skin.
• Describe the structure of the epidermis and dermis.
• Explain how a hair forms.
• Using an appropriate biological example, explain how negative feedback mechanisms contribute to homeostasis.

Chapter 32 Neural Control

• List the three steps involved in intercellular communication.
• Explain how a sea anemone’s nerve net differs from the nervous system of a flatworm in its structure and function.
• Name the two functional divisions of the vertebrate nervous system, and describe how they interact.
• Compare the three types of neurons, and explain how differences in their structure reflect their functions.
• Describe the ion concentration gradients across the plasma membrane of a neuron at resting potential.
• Explain how and why membrane potential changes during an action potential.
• Describe the structure of a synapse and explain its function.
• Explain how a neurotransmitter released by a neuron can alter the behavior of a postsynaptic cell.
• Describe the process of synaptic integration.
• Explain why a single neurotransmitter can have different effects on different types of cells.
• Give examples of the ways that drugs can alter synaptic function
• Describe the structure and location of peripheral nerves.
• Compare functions of somatic and autonomic nerves.
• Using several organs as examples, compare the effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation.
• Explain how cerebrospinal fluid forms and the function of the blood–brain barrier.
• Compare the components of white matter and gray matter.
• Describe the structure and function of the spinal cord.
• Explain the embryonic origin of the spinal cord and brain.
• Describe the location, function, and components of the hindbrain.
• List the components of the forebrain and describe their functions.
• Our capacity for language and abstract reasoning arises from the activity of the cerebral cortex.
• Give examples of how components of the limbic system affect emotions.
• Compare the different types of memories.
• Describe some of the evidence that the hippocampus plays an important role in formation of long-term memories.
• Describe methods that scientists use to study brain function.

Chapter 33 Sensory Perception

• Using appropriate examples, describe the different types of sensory receptors.
• Explain how the brain determines the location and intensity of a stimulus.
• Explain what occurs during sensory adaptation.
• Compare general senses and special senses.
• Describe somatic sensations and how they arise.
• Explain why visceral sensations are more difficult to localize than somatic sensations.
• Describe the location and function of the receptors involved in the human senses of smell and taste.
• Explain the function of pheromones.
• Explain how perceived loudness and pitch relate to properties of sound waves.
• Describe the components of the vertebrate outer, middle, and inner ear and explain their functions in hearing.
• Describe the vertebrate organs of equilibrium.
• Explain the difference between dynamic and static equilibrium.
• List the structures light travels through to reach the photoreceptors of a human eye.
• Describe how a human eye adjusts its focus for different distances.
• Compare the functions of the two types of photoreceptors.

Chapter 34 Endocrine Control

• Compare hormones and neurotransmitters.
• Describe how hormones were discovered.
• Compare the most common mechanisms of action of protein hormones and steroid hormones.
• Describe the role of a second messenger.
• Explain why mutations that alter hormone receptors can influence the response to a hormone.
• Describe the location of the hypothalamus and its structural and functional relationship with the pituitary gland.
• Compare the function of the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary.
• Explain causes and symptoms of growth hormone disorders.
• Describe how light influences the pineal gland.
• Give examples of melatonin’s effects.
• Describe the feedback loop that controls release of thyroid hormone.
• Explain how diet can affect thyroid function.
• Describe how the parathyroid gland regulates blood calcium.
• Describe how insulin and glucagon collectively regulate the level of glucose in the blood.
• Compare the two types of diabetes.
• Describe the location of the adrenal glands and explain the functions of the hormones produced in each part of these glands.
• Explain how the hormonal effects of long-term stress can contribute to poor health.
• List the main sex hormones made by males and by females and the organs that produce those hormones.
• Give examples of secondary sexual characteristics.

Chapter 35 Structural Support and Movement

• Give examples of adaptations that reduce the energy animals must expend to overcome friction and gravity when moving.
• Explain how squid locomotion differs from fish locomotion.
• List some structural adaptations that contribute to a cheetah’s speed.
• Using appropriate examples, describe the three types of skeletons.
• Describe how interactions between muscles and a skeleton allow a fly to flap its wings and an earthworm to burrow through soil.
• Explain the function of the vertebrate pelvic girdle and pectoral girdle.
• List the functions of bone.
• Differentiate between compact bone and spongy bone.
• Describe some factors that affect bone density.
• Using appropriate examples, describe the three types of joints.
• Describe how muscles attach to and move bones.
• Using a suitable example, explain how muscles work in opposition.
• Define a sphincter and provide an example.
• Describe the structure of a skeletal muscle.
• Explain how interactions among filaments cause a sarcomere to shorten.
• Draw a sarcomere in its relaxed and its contracted states.
• Trace the pathway a signal for voluntary skeletal muscle contraction takes from the brain to a neuromuscular junction.
• Describe how arrival of an action potential at a neuromuscular junction leads to muscle contraction.
• Using appropriate examples, explain how variation in the number of fibers controlled by a motor unit affects muscle tension.
• Describe the three pathways by which muscles can produce the ATP they need to contract.
• Compare the three different types of muscle fibers.
• Explain how prolonged inactivity harms health.

Chapter 36 Circulation

• Using appropriate examples, explain how some animals survive without a circulatory system.
• Describe an open circulatory system and a closed circulatory system.
• Compare the path of blood flow in a fish and a mammal.
• Discuss the advantages of a four-chambered heart.
• Describe the path of blood flow through the systemic and pulmonary circuits.
• Explain the function of the hepatic portal vein.
• Describe the structure and location of a human heart.
• Explain why ventricles are more muscular than atria.
• Describe the events that occur during one cardiac cycle.
• Compare the roles of the SA node and the AV node.
• Explain the functions of blood.
• List the components of plasma and describe their roles.
• List the cellular components of blood and explain their sources.
• Describe the process of hemostasis.
• Describe how an artery’s structure relates to its function.
• Explain how arterioles adjust blood flow to body regions, and describe some factors that trigger these adjustments.
• Explain what you feel when you check a person’s pulse.
• Describe how blood pressure varies across the systemic circuit.
• Explain how blood pressure is measured and the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure.
• Explain why blood flow slows in capillaries.
• Describe the mechanisms by which substances enter and leave capillaries.
• Describe the causes and effects of blood and cardiovascular disorders.
• Describe the components of the lymph vascular system and their functions.
• Explain how lymph is propelled through the lymph vessels.
• Explain the roles of lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus

Chapter 37 Immunity

• Explain immunity in terms of antigens and receptors.
• Describe the three lines of defense of vertebrate immunity.
• Differentiate between innate and adaptive immunity.
• Use examples to describe the main functions of white blood cells.
• Use examples to explain some benefits and risks associated with microbiota.
• Describe the body’s natural barriers and how they prevent microorganisms from enteringDescribe the role of complement in innate immunity.
• Describe the process of inflammation.
• Explain how fever occurs and its advantages.
• Explain how T cell receptors recognize antigen.
• Describe how an antibody’s structure gives rise to its function.
• Explain the way antigen receptor diversity arises.
• Distinguish between effector cells and memory cells.
• Explain the four defining characteristics of adaptive immunity.
• Describe antigen processing.
• Describe the role of helper T cells in adaptive immune responses.
• Describe the function of antibodies in an antibody-mediated response.
• Explain the technique and purpose of ABO blood typing.
• Explain why a vaccine elicits immunity.
• Distinguish between active and passive immunization.
• Describe a cell-mediated response and how it differs from an antibody-mediated response.
• Name the lymphocytes that recognize ailing body cells and how the recognition occurs in each case.
• Describe the symptoms of allergies and how they arise.
• Using an appropriate example, explain autoimmunity.
• Give some examples of the ways in which pathogens can evade mechanisms of innate and adaptive immunity.
• Explain immune deficiency using appropriate examples.
• Describe the progress of a typical infection with HIV.

Chapter 38 Respiration

• Explain why animal cells need oxygen and how they produce waste carbon dioxide.
• Describe the properties common to all respiratory surfaces.
• Give examples of adaptations that facilitate gas exchange.
• Compare the advantages and disadvantages of air and water as respiratory media.
• Using appropriate examples, describe the ways that invertebrates exchange gases with their environment.
• Describe the countercurrent flow of blood and water across fish gills, and explain how it enhances the efficiency of gas exchange.
• Compare the mechanisms by which frogs and mammals fill their lungs with air.
• Explain why birds can extract more oxygen from air than mammals can.
• List the structures that inhaled air passes through as it flows from the human nasal cavity to an alveolus.
• Describe the location of the epiglottis, and explain its function.
• Describe the location and structure of the human lungs.
• List the types of muscles that contract during inhalation, passive exhalation, and forced exhalation.
• Explain what determines the rate and depth of breathing.
• Describe the structure of the respiratory membrane.
• Compare transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.
• Describe the structure of hemoglobin and the conditions that encourage it to bind or to release oxygen.
• Using appropriate examples, describe adaptations that facilitate respiratory function in a low-oxygen environment.
• Explain the possible causes of apnea, and why it is dangerous.
• Describe common respiratory disorders and their causes.
• Describe the effects of smoking on lung health.

Chapter 39 Digestion and Nutrition

• Explain how a sponge digests food and distributes nutrients.
• Compare the structure of a gastrovascular cavity and a complete digestive tract, and explain the advantages of the latter.
• Provide examples of regional specializations in a digestive tract.
• List the components of the human digestive tract in order beginning with the mouth.
• List the organs that secrete substances into the digestive tract and which parts of the tract receive their secretions.
• Compare the teeth of mammalian herbivores and carnivores.
• List the components of saliva, and describe their functions.
• Explain the functions of the small intestine.
• Describe the structural features that contribute to the large surface area of the small intestine.
• List the final breakdown products of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, and explain how these products are absorbed.
• Describe the structure and function of the large intestine.
• Describe defecation and what triggers it.
• Explain why the large intestine contains many microbes and the beneficial effects of these microbes.
• Explain how the body uses the breakdown products of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
• Provide an example of a water-soluble vitamin and a fat-soluble vitamin, and explain why each is essential.
• Give an example of an essential mineral, and its role in the body.

Chapter 40 Maintaining The Internal ENvironment

• Explain the ways that animals gain and lose water.
• Compare the amounts of water and energy used in the excretion of urea, uric acid, and ammonia.
• Compare the types of excretory organs, and explain the similarity in how they function.
• List the structures that urine travels through, from when it leaves the kidney to when it exits the body.
• Describe the structure and function of a nephron.
• Explain the three processes involved in urine formation.
• Describe how urine can become more concentrated than blood.
• Explain how hormones affect urine concentration.
• Describe the effects of aldosterone and ADH on the kidney.
• Explain the role of the kidney in acid–base balance.
• Describe where and how kidney stones form.
• Explain the causes of kidney failure and how it is treated.
• Compare the challenges that freshwater and marine bony fishes face with regard to maintaining their solute concentration.
• Describe the adaptations that allow desert kangaroo rats to survive without drinking water.
• List the ways in which a body gains and loses heat.
• Compare the thermoregulatory mechanism of endotherms and ectotherms, and give examples of each.
• Describe the mechanisms that allow animals to maintain their core body temperature when the temperature of their environment fluctuates.

Chapter 41 Animal Reproduction

• Using appropriate examples, describe some of the ways that animals reproduce asexually.
• Describe the different types of hermaphrodites.
• Compare internal and external fertilization.
• Using appropriate examples, describe the ways in which developing animal offspring are nourished.
• Explain the function of gonads.
• Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
• List the components of the female reproductive system, and describe their functions.
• Describe the human ovarian cycle and menstrual cycle.
• Explain how hormones regulate female reproductive cycles.
• Explain what an estrous cycle is.
• List the components of the male reproductive system, and describe their functions.
• Describe spermatogenesis, and list the components of semen.
• Describe the physiological changes that occur during intercourse.
• Explain why fertilization requires more than one sperm.
• List the components that the sperm contributes to the zygote.
• Describe the mechanisms used to prevent pregnancy.
• List the possible causes of infertility.
• List common sexually transmitted diseases, their causes, and their effects.

Chapter 42 Animal Development

• Describe what occurs during cleavage and the product of this developmental process.
• Name the three embryonic tissue layers of vertebrate embryos, and describe the process by which they arise.
• Give examples of the structures derived from each of the three germ layers.
• Explain why cells of a blastula differ in their contents.
• Describe how experimental manipulation of amphibian embryos revealed the importance of cytoplasmic localization.
• Explain the role of selective gene expression in development.
• Describe the process of embryonic induction, and provide an example.
• Give an example of how cell shape changes contribute to organ formation.
• Explain the process of apoptosis and its role in development.
• Describe how cells can shift their position during development.
• Give examples of factors that constrain animal body plans.
• Using appropriate examples, explain how mutations that affect development can alter a body
• Define how the terms embryo and fetus are used in discussing human prenatal development.
• Explain what is meant by a premature birth, and describe the associated risks.
• Summarize the main events of postnatal development.
• Describe the formation and implantation of a human blastocyst.
• Explain the function of the extra-embryonic membranes.
• Describe the size and appearance of a human at the beginning of the fetal period.
• Describe the developmental events of the second and third trimester.
• Describe the structure of the placenta.
• Explain how materials are exchanged across the placenta.
• Describe normal childbirth, and compare it with a surgical delivery.
• List the components of milk, and describe their functions.

Chapter 43 Animal Behavior

• Explain the difference between proximate and ultimate causes of behavior.
• Using appropriate examples, explain how genetic and epigenetic mechanisms can give rise to differences in behavior.
• Compare instinctive and learned behavior.
• Explain the circumstances that favor evolution of instinctive behavior.
• Describe the types of learned behavior and give examples.
• Explain the difference between a taxis and a kinesis.
• Describe some of the ways that animals find their way when they migrate.
• List the different types of communication signals, and give examples of each.
• Describe some ways that predators can take advantage of prey communication systems.
• Explain why genetic monogamy is rare among animals.
• Give examples of female choice and male–male competition.
• Using appropriate examples, explain some factors that determine whether parental care will evolve in a species and which parent will provide it.
• Give examples of temporary and long-term grouping behavior.
• List the benefits and costs of living in a group.
• Explain the ways that altruistic behavior can evolve.
• Describe the traits that define eusocial animals.
• Explain what determines whether a honeybee develops as a worker or a queen.
• Describe the social systems of honeybees, termites, and naked mole rats.

Chapter 44 Population Ecology

• Give some examples of population demographics.
• Describe two methods of estimating population demographic
• Give the equation that describes exponential growth and explain what the terms in the equation mean.
• Define biotic potential and give examples of organisms that differ in their biotic potential.
• Using appropriate examples, compare density-dependent limiting factors with density-independent limiting factors.
• Explain how limiting factors result in logistic growth.
• List some factors that affect carrying capacity.
• Explain why carrying capacity can vary over time.
• Give some examples of life history traits.
• Distinguish between opportunistic and equilibrial species.
• Describe the three types of survivorship curves.
• Explain how predators act as selective agents that affect the life history patterns of prey species.
• Explain how the collection and analysis of life history data can help in conservation.
• Describe the factors that allowed a rapid increase in the human population during the past 200 years.
• Explain why replacement fertility rate varies among regions.
• Explain how population growth is influenced by age structure.

Chapter 45 Community Ecology

• Using appropriate examples, describe some factors that influence community structure.
• Distinguish between the two components of species diversity.
• Explain symbiosis and give an example.
• Using appropriate examples, describe the types of benefits that can be exchanged by partners in a mutualism.
• Explain why mutualism is considered reciprocal exploitation.
• Using appropriate examples, describe the two types of interspecific competition.
• Describe the process of competitive exclusion.
• Explain how character displacement allows resource partitioning.
• Explain why and how predator abundance and prey abundance affect one another.
• Give examples of evolved defenses against predation and herbivory.
• Distinguish between the two types of mimicry
• 7.1 – Distinguish between parasites and parasitoids.
• 7.2 – Describe how parasites can reduce the population size of their hosts.
• 7.3 – Using an appropriate example, explain brood parasitism.
• 7.4 – Explain the benefits and risks of biological pest control.
• Distinguish between primary and secondary succession.
• Explain why the exact course of succession can be unpredictable.
• Describe how the frequency and magnitude of disturbance influences the species richness of a community.
• Explain how indicator species can be used to monitor the environment.

Chapter 46 Ecosystems

• Distinguish between the producers and consumers in an ecosystem.
• Explain how the movement of energy in an ecosystem differs from the movement of nutrients.
• List some factors that influence primary productivity.
• Give an example of a food chain with four trophic levels.
• Explain what limits the length of food chains.          
• Distinguish between the two types of food webs, and give examples of the habitats in which each predominates.
• Explain the factors that limit the length of food chains.
• Distinguish between gross primary production and net primary production.
• Explain why an energy pyramid is always broadest at the bottom.
• List the three environmental reservoirs that hold the most water.
• Describe how water enters land food webs.
• Explain how water movement affects the flow of nutrients.
• Describe the ecological effects of overdrawing water from aquifers and rivers.
• Compare the amount of carbon in Earth’s sediments, air, and oceans.
• Describe how carbon enters marine and aquatic food webs.
• Describe how atmospheric greenhouse gases affect the temperature of Earth’s surface.
• Explain the causes of the ongoing increase in greenhouse gases and the effect of this increase on climate.
• Describe the geochemical portion of the phosphorus cycle.
• Describe how phosphorus enters food webs.

Chapter 47 The Biosphere

• Explain why the amount of sunlight that reaches the ground varies with latitude (distance from the equator).
• Describe how latitudinal differences in sunlight energy lead to global air circulation patterns that affect climate.
• Explain why winds trace a curved path relative to Earth’s surface.
• Using appropriate examples, describe how ocean currents and proximity to the ocean influence climate.
• Explain where and why rain shadows occur.
• Compare weather conditions during an El Niño and a La Niña.
• Give examples of the biological effects of an El Niño.
• Explain why geographically distant regions of a biome often contain species that have similar characteristics.
• Describe the climate of desert biomes.
• List some traits that adapt plants to life in the desert.
• Describe the composition of the desert crust and explain its ecological importance.
• Describe the dominant vegetation in grasslands and chaparral.
• Explain the role of fire and grazers in grasslands and chaparral.
• Describe the types of broad-leaf forest biomes.
• Explain why tropical rainforests have high biodiversity.
• Describe the location and composition of the boreal forest biome.
• List some conifer adaptations to cold.
• Describe the climate and location of arctic and alpine tundra.
• Explain why the soil of arctic tundra contains a large amount of carbon.
• List some of the factors that affect a lake’s primary production.
• Describe the zonation of a lake.
• Explain why a temperate zone lake turns over in spring and fall, and the effect that this turnover has on primary production.
• Explain the factors that affect the oxygen content of a river.
• Explain why estuaries are especially nutrient-rich.
• Compare the main types of food chains on rocky and sandy shores.
• Describe where coral reefs occur.
• Explain what causes coral bleaching.
• Distinguish between the pelagic and benthic provinces.
• Describe the producers at hydrothermal vents.
• Describe a seamount.

Chapter 48 Human Impacts on the Biosphere

• Describe what occurs during a mass extinction.
• Explain how human activities can lead to extinctions.
• Explain why desertification and deforestation alter the local climate.
• Describe how plastic in the sea harms marine organisms.
• Compare the negative effects of acid, ammonium, and mercury deposition.
• Explain the importance of the ozone layer.
• List the pollutants that affect the ozone layer.
• Describe what has been done to slow ozone layer thinning.
• Describe some ways that individuals can help sustain biodiversity.